Caesar Tin-U

Mr. Acevedo

AP Biology Per. 7^th

30 October 2007

Producers to Predators

In the movie “Producers to Predators” it is said that produces require various produces are green plants that synthesize organic compounds that serve as food. The cycle of which this is called is called the carbon cycle. Practically all living things depend for their existence on green plants, which can make their own food by photosynthesis. Green plants are autorophs and are considered to be independent organisms. Organisms that cannot synthesis their own food are heterotrophs, and are dependent saprophytes are organisms that live on dead organic matter, for example, bacteria of decay, mushroom. Carnivores, or eat eating animals, eat the flesh of other animals, which directly or indirectly obtain their food from plants. Carnivores are of two types: predators, which kill other animals, and scavengers, which eat dead organisms that they did not kill. The snapping turtle is an example of an animal that may be both a predator and scavenger.

A food chain represents the different links along which food is passed from one organism to another. It starts with green plants, which can make their own food in the presence of sunlight. Sunlight serves as the source of energy for photosynthesis to take place. The green plant may then serve as a source of food for herbivores, which, in turn, are eaten by carnivores, and for decomposers, which bring about decay in animals. Only 1 percent of sunlight is able to be used for photosynthesis, and only 3 percent of that one percent is actually capable of being harnessed for energy by plants. This is done through photosynthesis. In any biome, there are always more plant producers, than there are consumers.

The links in a food chain may be illustrated by referring to the well known jingle by the 18^th century satirical write Jonathan Swift: “Big fleas have little fleas, Upon their back to bite’em, And little fleas have lesser fleas, and so, ad infinitum.”

The sequence in the food chain mentioned above can thus be rewritten in this way: green plants) produces) -> mice (1^st order consumers) ->snakes (second order consumers) -> hawks (third order consumers on snakes; second order consumers on mice) -> decomposers. The wastes of decomposes help create a nutrient rich soil for new plants, if decomposers were not able to do this, the whole world would be covered in dung, and all life will die out.

The specific environment of a particular species is known as its niche. If two different species occupy the same ecological niche, they will compete with each other for food and reproductive sites. The species that reproduces faster will eliminate its competitor. As a result, one species is established per niche in a balanced community. All the members of that species use the same kinds of food, and occupy similar reproductive sites.

Green plants have the ability to store the radiant energy of the sun as chemical energy in the bonds of the organic compounds they synthesize. When green plants are eaten as food, this energy is taken into the consumers and used by them for their life activates. The various pathways by which the food energy is transmitted make up the energy system of the food web. There is a decrease in the total amount of energy as it is passed along from the producer to the consumers. Each member of the food web uses up some of the energy as it carries on its various metabolic activities. In the sequence of energy transfers, the amount of usable energy runs down. In addition, since the consumers must seek and find their prey, they may not always be successful in obtaining food. In other words, the various members of the food web pass on less energy than they receive.

Many organisms live intimately together in close associations that may or may not be beneficial to them. Although the relationships are not always clear-cut, the types of symbiosis may be described as follows:

1. Commensalism – one organism is benefited and the other is not affected. Examples: Barnacles live on the hide of a while, obtaining a habitat as well as a means of transportation. The remora of fish attaches itself to the bottom of a shark by means of a suction pad on its head, and feeds on food scraps left over by the shark.

2. Mutualism – both organisms mutually benefit from living together. Examples: Lichen is made up of both a fungus and an alga; the fungus provides moisture, while the alga makes food by photosynthesis.

3. Parasitism – one organism, the parasite, attaches itself to another, the hose, and benefits at the latter are expense. Examples: the athlete’s foot fungus grows on human skin. Tapeworms and other type of worms attach themselves in the intestines of animals and absorb digested food.

Schizophrenia-

• Hearing voices or experiencing other sensory events that aren't real (hallucinations)
• Holding untrue beliefs about reality (delusions)
• Disorganized thinking
• Grossly disorganized, irrational behavior
• Absent or inappropriate emotional expression
• Inability to initiate plans

Catatonic-

• Physical immobility. People may be completely immobile and appear to be unaware of their surroundings (catatonic stupor). They may exhibit a partial immobility known as "waxy flexibility." For example, if a person's arm is moved into a certain position, it will stay there for some time.
• Excessive mobility. These motor activities — such as frenzied pacing, turning around in circles, flailing arms or making loud noises — appear to have no purpose or motivating factors. This kind of behavior is called catatonic excitement.
• Extreme resistance. Without any apparent motivation, people with catatonic schizophrenia may not respond to instruction, may resist any attempt to be moved or may not speak at all. This kind of behavior is called negativism.
• Peculiar movements. People may assume inappropriate or unusual postures, grimace for long periods or adopt unusual mannerisms. They may also exhibit habits known as stereotyped behaviors, such as repeating words, obsessively following a routine or always arranging objects exactly the same way.
• Mimicking speech or movement. A person may repeatedly say a word just spoken by someone else (echolalia) or repeatedly copy a gesture or movement made by someone else (echopraxia).

Paranoid-

• delusions- FBI is after them, delusions of grandeur, complex stories and may have violent outbursts
  
• hallucinations- auditory and visual
  

Disorganized-

• Disorganized thinking. When people experience disorganized thinking, they can't form logical and coherent thoughts. This impairment is also evident in people's speech patterns. They may not be able to stay on track, their speech may "wander aimlessly" through a topic, or they may jump from one unrelated idea to another. These speech patterns are severe enough to render the speech virtually unintelligible. If the thinking is severely disorganized, a person may speak in ungrammatical phrases or use made-up words. These same patterns are evident in written communication.
• Grossly disorganized behavior. As the word "grossly" suggests, the disorganized behavior of schizophrenia is severe and causes significant impairment in a person's ability to function in regular daily activities. Examples of such behaviors include childlike silliness, sudden displays of agitation (swearing or shouting "out of the blue"), wearing many layers of clothes on a warm day, inappropriate sexual behavior in public, urinating in public and neglecting personal hygiene.
• Absent or inappropriate emotional expression. When people show a complete absence of emotional expression (flat affect), their faces seem blank. They don't make eye contact or display observable body language. Although a person with flat affect may occasionally show some emotion, the range of expressions is usually very limited. Sometimes people with disorganized schizophrenia express emotions that are inappropriate to the situation, such as laughing when something bad happens.

Undifferentiated

• psychotic symptoms are present but the criteria for paranoid, disorganized, or catatonic types has not been met

Positive Signs and Symptoms
Positive signs include hallucinations and delusions. They're called positive because they indicate a trait or behavior that's been added to the personality.

• Hallucinations. Hallucinations occur when you sense things that don't exist. The most common hallucination in schizophrenia is hearing voices. You may carry on a conversation with voices that no one else can hear. Or you may perceive that voices are providing you instructions on what to do. Hallucinations may result in injuries to other people.
• Delusions. Delusions are firmly held personal beliefs that have no basis in reality. The most common subtype of schizophrenia is paranoid schizophrenia, in which you hold irrational beliefs that others are persecuting you or conspiring against you. For example, some people with schizophrenia may believe that the television is directing their behavior or that outside forces are controlling their thoughts.

Negative signs and symptoms
Negative signs and symptoms may appear early in the disease, and a person may not think he or she needs treatment. They're referred to as negative because they indicate a loss of behavior or of a personality trait. Negative signs generally accompany a slow deterioration of function, leading to your becoming less sociable. Such signs may include:

• Dulled emotions (lack of expression)
• Inappropriate emotions (laughing while expressing terrifying images)
• A change in speech (speaking in a dull monotone)

Causes: genetic (family and twin studies), dopamine hypothesis (surplus of dopamine), brain abnormality (larger ventricles), environmental (flu and cold), previous cannabis use (heavy smoker)

Medications

• The first antipsychotic was discovered by accident and then used for schizophrenia. This was chlorpromazine (Thorazine), which was soon followed by medications such as haloperidol (Haldol), fluphenazine (Prolixin), thiothixene (Navane), trifluoperazine (Stelazine), perphenazine (Trilafon), and thioridazine (Mellaril). These medications have become known as "neuroleptics" because, although effective in treating positive symptoms (ie, acute symptoms such as hallucinations, delusions, thought disorder, loose associations, ambivalence, or emotional lability), they cause side effects, many of which affect the neurologic (nervous) system. These older medications are not as effective against symptoms such as decreased motivation and lack of emotional expressiveness.
• Since 1989, a new class of antipsychotics (atypical antipsychotics) has been introduced. At clinically effective doses, no (or very few) of these neurological side effects, which often affect the extrapyramidal nerve tracts (which control such things as muscular rigidity, painful spasms, restlessness, or tremors) are observed.
• The first of the new class, clozapine (Clozaril) is the only agent that has been shown to be effective where other antipsychotics have failed. Its use is not associated with extrapyramidal side effects, but it does produce other side effects, including possible decrease in the number of white cells, so the blood needs to be monitored every week during the first 6 months of treatment and then every 2 weeks to catch this side effect early if it occurs.
• Other atypical antipsychotics include risperidone (Risperdal), olanzapine (Zyprexa), quetiapine (Seroquel), ziprasidone (Geodon), and aripiprazole (Abilify). The use of these medications has allowed successful treatment and release back to their homes and the community for many people suffering from schizophrenia.
• Although more effective and better tolerated, the use of these agents is also associated with side effects, and current medical practice is developing better ways of understanding these effects, identifying people at risk, and monitoring for the emergence of complications.
• Most of these medications take 2-4 weeks to take effect. Patience is required if the dose needs to be adjusted, the specific medication changed, and another medication added. In order to be able to determine whether an antipsychotic is effective or not, it should be tried for at least 6-8 weeks (or even longer with clozapine).
• Because the risk of relapse of illness is higher when antipsychotic medications are taken irregularly or discontinued, it is important that people with schizophrenia follow a treatment plan developed in collaboration with their doctors and with their families. The treatment plan will involve taking the prescribed medication in the correct amount and at the times recommended, attending follow-up appointments, and following other treatment recommendations.
• People with schizophrenia often do not believe that they are ill or that they need treatment. Other possible things that may interfere with the treatment plan include side effects from medications, substance abuse, negative attitudes towards treatment from families and friends, or even unrealistic expectations. When present, these issues need to be acknowledged and addressed for the treatment to be successful.

Dissociative Disorders- usually as a form of coping with childhood trauma

Symptoms common to all types of dissociative disorders include:

• Memory loss (amnesia) of certain time periods, events and people
• Mental health problems, including depression and anxiety
• A sense of being detached from yourself (depersonalization)
• A perception of the people and things around you as distorted and unreal (derealization)
• A blurred sense of identity

Each of the four major dissociative disorders is characterized by a distinct mode of dissociation. Dissociative disorder symptoms may include:

• Dissociative amnesia. Memory loss that's more extensive than normal forgetfulness and can't be explained by a physical or neurological condition is the hallmark of this condition. Sudden-onset amnesia following a traumatic event, such as a car accident, happens infrequently. More commonly, conscious recall of traumatic periods, events or people in your life — especially from childhood — is simply absent from your memory.
• Dissociative identity disorder. This condition, formerly known as multiple personality disorder, is characterized by "switching" to alternate identities when you're under stress. In dissociative identity disorder, you may feel the presence of one or more other people (alters) talking or living inside your head. Each of these identities may have their own name, personal history and characteristics, including marked differences in manner, voice, gender and even such physical qualities as the need for corrective eyewear. There often is considerable variation in each alternate personality's familiarity with the others. People with dissociative identity disorder typically also have dissociative amnesia.
• Dissociative fugue. People with this condition dissociate by putting real distance between themselves and their identity. For example, you may abruptly leave home or work and travel away, forgetting who you are and possibly adopting a new identity in a new location. People experiencing dissociative fugue typically retain all their faculties and may be very capable of blending in wherever they end up. A fugue episode may last only a few hours or, rarely, as long as many months. Dissociative fugue typically ends as abruptly as it begins. When it lifts, you may feel intensely disoriented, depressed and angry, with no recollection of what happened during the fugue or how you arrived in such unfamiliar circumstances.
• Depersonalization disorder. This disorder is characterized by a sudden sense of being outside yourself, observing your actions from a distance as though watching a movie. It may be accompanied by a perceived distortion of the size and shape of your body or of other people and objects around you. Time may seem to slow down, and the world may seem unreal. Symptoms may last only a few moments or may wax and wane over many years.

  Treatment

  Psychotherapy is the primary treatment for dissociative disorders. This form of therapy, also known as talk therapy, counseling or psychosocial therapy, involves talking about your disorder and related issues with a mental health professional. Your therapist will work to help you understand the cause of your condition and to form new ways of coping with stressful circumstances.

  Psychotherapy for dissociative disorders often involves techniques, such as hypnosis, that help you remember and work through the trauma that triggered your dissociative symptoms. The course of your psychotherapy may be long and painful, but this treatment approach often is very effective in treating dissociative disorders.

  Other dissociative disorder treatment may include:

• Creative art therapy. This type of therapy uses the creative process to help people who might have difficulty expressing their thoughts and feelings. Creative arts can help you increase self-awareness, cope with symptoms and traumatic experiences, and foster positive changes. Creative art therapy includes art, dance and movement, drama, music and poetry.
• Cognitive therapy. This type of talk therapy helps you identify unhealthy, negative beliefs and behaviors and replace them with healthy, positive ones. It's based on the idea that your own thoughts — not other people or situations — determine how you behave. Even if an unwanted situation has not changed, you can change the way you think and behave in a positive way.
• Medication. Although there are no medications that specifically treat dissociative disorders, your doctor may prescribe antidepressants, anti-anxiety medications or tranquilizers to help control the mental health symptoms associated with dissociative disorders.

Photosynthesis Review

1. What is the term for the ability to perform work? ______________________.

2. Animals that Cannot make their own food are called ________________________.

3. Most organisms use an energy storage molecule called ____________________ _______________________ or simply (_______).

4. Light of different colors is different in ______________________ and _________________________.

5. During photosynthesis, a Reduction Reaction _________ ______________ to a molecule.

6. Oxidation is a process that makes a molecule __________________ electrons.

7. Disk-shaped structures with photosynthetic pigments are known as __________________.

8. The process by which autotrophs convert sunlight into energy is called ___________________________.

9. A molecule that can absorb certain light wavelengths and reflect others is a ________________________________.

10. What are the most common group of photosynthetic pigments in plants? ___________________________

11. Stroma are gel-like matrix (a solution) that surrounds the ________________________.

12. Photosynthesis occurs in two stages called:
A.______________________________________________
B.______________________________________________

13. Plants that use only the Calvin Cycle for photosynthesis are called ______________.

14. CAM Plants can survive in dry, hot deserts because they can fix carbon at ____________________________.

15. What substances do Autotrophs or producers use to make food?
A._____________________________________
B._____________________________________
C._____________________________________

16. The addition of an electron to an atom or a molecule is called _________________.

17. The loss of an electron to an atom or a molecule is called ____________________.

18. Organisms that CAN produce their own food are called ______________________.

19. An important waste product of photosynthesis is _______________________.

20. Photosynthesis occurs in what organelle of plants and algae? _________________________.

21. The Thylakoids are surrounded by a gel-like matrix (solution) called __________________.

22. An object that absorbs all colors appears _____________________.

23. What are the light collecting units of the Chloroplast? __________________.

24. Carbon fixing reactions occur in a pathway called the _____________________ _________________.

25. Chlorophyll reflects and transmits what color? _________________________.

26. An object that reflects all colors appears ____________________________.

27. Folded Thylakoids that resemble stacks of pancakes are called ________________________________.

28.The pigments that absorb violet, blue and red light. __________________________

29.The Enzyme that adds a phosphate group to ADP. _________ __________________ to form _________________.

30. What do we call the component colors of white light? ______________________ ___________________________

31. What clusters of pigments are called. ____________________________

32. A five-carbon carbohydrate in the Calvin cycle. _____________________________

33. A three-carbon molecule in the Calvin cycle.______________________________

34. A Series of linked chemical reactions is called a __________________________ ____________________________.

35. The pigments that absorb blue and green light are called ________________________.

36. The oxygen atoms in the oxygen gas produced in photosynthesis come from ________________________ __________________________.

37. Both C4 and C3 plants use the ____________________ _________________ for carbon fixation.

38. Where does the energy required for the Calvin cycle originate? From ______________ and __________________ produced by the ____________________ _____________________.

39. Protons are move into the thylakoid using energy from ___________________ in the __________________________ __________________________.

40. At the end of photosystem I transport chain, electrons combine with ______________ to form ______________________.

41. Carbon atoms are fixed into organic compounds in the _____________________ ______________________.

42. To produce the same amount of carbohydrate, C4 plants require less ___________________ ____________________ than C3 plants.

43. Where in the chloroplast do the light reactions occur? ________________________

44. Where in the chloroplast do the reactions of the Calvin cycle occur? ______________________________

45. What product of the light reactions of photosynthesis is released and does not participate further in photosynthesis? _________________________________

46.Which environmental factor will cause a rapid decline in the photosynthesis rate if the factor rises above a certain level? ___________________________________

47. Accessory pigments differ from chlorophyll a in that they are _______________ directly involved in the ___________________ _____________________ of photosynthesis.

48. What structure that is found in the thylakoid membrane is important to chemiosmosis? ___________
_____________________________.

49. _______________________________________________________ is the protein in the _____________________________________ membrane that adds a phosphate group to ADP.

50. Chemiosmosis relies on a(n) ____________________________________________________ of protons across the thylakoid membrane.

51. Write the chemical equation for photosynthesis.____________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________

52. ATP synthase is a multifunctional protein. By allowing protons to cross the thylakoid membrane, it functions as a(n) _______________________________________________, and by catalyzing the synthesis of ATP it functions as a(n) ______________________________.

53. H+ represents an ion or in photosynthesis a(n) _____________________________________.

DIRECTIONS: Answer the questions below as completely and as thoroughly as possible. Answer the question in essay form (not outline form), using complete sentences. You may use diagrams to supplement your answers, but a diagram alone without appropriate discussion is inadequate.

1. Describe the internal structure and external structure of a chloroplast.

2. Explain what happens to the components of water molecules that are split during the light reactions of photosynthesis? (HINT: Name the three products that are produced when water molecules are split during the light reactions and explain what each product is used for.)

3. Explain the difference between the roles of photosystem I and photosystem II in photosynthesis?

4. Explain why the leaves of some plants look green during the summer then turn yellow, orange, red,
or brown during the fall?

5. What plant structures control the passage of water out of a plant and carbon dioxide into a plant? Explain
how they control the passage of water out of a plant and carbon dioxide into a plant.

6. What happens to the electrons that are lost by photosystem II? What happens to the electrons
that are lost by photosystem I?

7. Photosynthesis is said to be "Saturated" at a certain level of CO2. Explain what this means?

8. Explain how is ATP synthesized in photosynthesis? What is this process called?

9. What is the fate of most of the PGAL molecules in the third step of the Calvin cycle and Why is this important?
What happens to the remaining PGAL molecules? What organic compound can be made from PGAL?

10. Explain how CAM plants differ from C3 and C4 plants? How does this difference allow CAM
plants to exist in hot, dry conditions?

11. Define biochemical pathway and explain how the Calvin cycle is an example of a biochemical pathway.
In what part of the chloroplasts does the Calvin cycle take place?

12. Explain how the function of the chloroplasts is related to its structure.

13. What roles do water molecules play in photosynthesis?

14. Describe the structure and function of the thylakoids of a chloroplasts.

15. What role do accessory pigments play in photosynthesis?

http://sps.k12.ar.us/massengale/preap_photosynthesis_study_guide.htm

massengale-> PreAP Biology -> PreAP Biology Chapter Reviews -> Photosynthesis

The Brain

Body regions with the most sensory receptions- the lips and fingertips – send impulse to neurons that make up a large part of the sensory cortex. Furthermore, the sensory pathways are crossed pathways – meaning that the left side of the sensory cortex receives impulses from the right side of the body, and vice versa.

Impulses from the special sense organs are interpreted in other cortical areas. For example, the visual area is located in the posterior part of the occipital lobe, the auditory area is in the temporal lobe bordering the lateral sulcus, and the olfactory area is found deep inside the temporal lobe.

The primary motor area that allows us to consciously move our skeletal muscles anterior to the central sulcus is the frontal lobe.

A specialized area that is very involved in our ability to speak, Broca’s area, is formed at the base of the precentral gyrus. Damage to this area, which is located only one central hemisphere (usually left), causes inability to say words properly. You know what you want to say, but you can’t vocalize the words.

Areas involved in intellectual reasoning and believed to be in the anterior part of the frontal lobes. Complex memories appear to be in the temporal and frontal lobes. The speech area is located at the junction of the temporal parietal, and occipital lobes. The speech area allows one to sound out words.

Corticalization of the Brain

The fact that humans are more intelligent than other animals is particularly related to the corticalization, or the increase I the size of and the wrinkling of the cortex. A small positive correlation exists between intelligence and the brain size. However, it is a mistake to think that size alone determines human intelligence

Cerebral Hemispheres

The cortex is composed of two sides, or cerebral hemispheres, and is connected by a thick band called the corpus collosum. The corpus collosum is a major “cable system” through which the right and left cerebral hemispheres communicate.

The left side of the brain mainly controls the right side of the body. Likewise, the right brain mainly controls the left side of the body: Damage to the right hemisphere may also cause a serious problem called special neglect. Affected patients pay no attention to the left side of visual space. Often the patient will not eat food on the left side of a plate. Some even refuse to acknowledge a paralyzed left arm as their own. If you point to the “alien” arm, the patient is likely to say, “Oh, that’s not my arm. It belongs to someone else.”

Cerebrum: The two large hemispheres that cover the upper part of the brain.

Cerebral Cortex: The outer layer of the cerebrum

Corticalizzation: An increase in the relative size of the cerebral cortex.

Cerebral Hemisphere: The right and left halves of the cerebrum

Corupus Callosum: The bundle of fibers connecting the cerebral hemispheres.

Right Brain/ Left Brain

The brain divides its work in interesting ways. About 95 % of us use our brain for language (speaking, writing, and understanding). In addition, the left hemisphere is superior at math, judging time, and rhythm, and coordinating the order of complex movements, such as those needed for speaking.

In contrast, the right hemisphere can produce only the simplest language and movement. The right brain is especially good at perceptional skills, such as recognizing patters, faces, and melodies, putting together a puzzle, or drawing a picture. It also helps you express emotions and detect the emotions and detect the emotions that other people are feeling.

The left hemisphere is mainly involved with analysis (breaking down information into parts). It also processes information sequentially. To summarize, you could say that the right hemisphere is better at assembling pieses of the world into a coherent picture; it sees ovdrall patterns and general connections.

The left brain focuses on small details. The right braing seese the wide-angle view; the left zooms in on specifics. The focus of the left brain is local the right is global.

Lobes of the cerebral cortex

In addition to the two big hemisphere, the cerebral cortex can be divided into several smaller lobes [areas bordered by major groovers or fissures or defined by their functions].

Occipital lobes: At the back of the brain, we find the occipital lobes, the primary visual area of the cortex. Patients with tumors in the occipital lobes experience blind spots in their vision.

The Parietal Lobes: Bodily sensation register in the parietal lobes, located just above the occipital lobes. Touch, temperature, pressure, and other somatic sensations flow into the somatosensory area on the parietal lobes.

The Temporal Lobes:

Caesar Tin-U

Mr. Acevedo

AP Biology Per. 7

1 November 2007

The Flow of Energy

Some organisms are capable of synthesizing organic molecules from inorganic precursors, and of storing biochemical energy in the process. These are called autotrophs, having the ability to produce their own food through the likes of photosynthesis or chemosynthesis. Autotrophs also are referred to as primary producers. Organisms able to manufacture complex organic molecules from simple inorganic compounds (water, CO₂, nutrients) include plants, some protists, and some bacteria. Chemosynthesis is used mainly by specialized bacteria; they can convert inorganic nutrients to organic compounds without the presence of sunlight. There are several groups of chemosynthetic bacteria in marine and freshwater environments, particularly those rich in sulfur or hydrogen sulfide gas. Like chlorophyll-bearing plants and other organisms capable of photosynthesis, chemosynthetic organisms are autotrophs.

Many organisms can only obtain their energy by feeding on other organisms. These are called heterotrophs. They include consumers of any organism, in any form: plants, animals, microbes, even dead tissue. Heterotrophs also are called consumers.

The term production is the creation of new organic matter. When a crop of wheat grows, new organic matter is created by the process of photosynthesis, which converts light energy into energy stored in chemical bonds within plant tissue. This energy fuels the metabolic machinery of the plant. New compounds and structures are synthesized, cells divide, and the plant grows in size over time. The plant requires sunlight, carbon dioxide, water, and nutrients, and through photosynthesis the plant produces reduced carbon compounds and oxygen.

The core idea is that new chemical compounds and new plant tissue are produced. Over time, primary production results in the addition of new plant biomass to the system. Consumers derive their energy from primary producers, either directly (herbivores, some detritivores), or indirectly (predators, other detritivores).

The trophic level is simply a feeding level, as often represented in a food chain or food web. Primary producers comprise the bottom trophic level, followed by primary consumers (herbivores), then secondary consumers (carnivores feeding on herbivores), and so on. When we talk of moving "up" the food chain, we are speaking figuratively and mean that we move from plants to herbivores to carnivores. This does not take into account decomposers and detritivores (organisms that feed on dead organic matter), which make up their own, highly important trophic pathways.

All of the animal species on earth are consumers, and they depend upon producer organisms for their food. This includes humans as well. Suppose we have some amount of plant matter consumed by hares, and the hares are in turn consumed by foxes. A hare (or a population of hares) ingests plant matter. Part of this material is processed by the digestive system and used to make new cells or tissues, and this part is called assimilation. What cannot be assimilated, is excreted in a process called excretion.

The hare uses a significant fraction of the assimilated energy just being a hare; maintaining a high, constant body temperature, synthesizing proteins, and hopping about. This energy used (lost) is attributed to cellular respiration. The remainder goes into making more hare biomass by growth and reproduction. All of these activities are termed “secondary production.” Because of all of the energy costs of hares engaged in normal metabolic activities, the energy available to foxes is much less than the energy available to hares.

Hace mucho tiempo, en la gran ciudad de Teotihuacán, había un rey tolteca que tenia una hija muy hermosa. El pelo de la procesa era tan negro y suave como una noche de verano, sus ojos eran tan grandes y sonrisa era tan bonita que decían que el sol miraba por las montan todas las mañanas para ser el primero en verla

Muchos príncipes ricos y famosos venían de todas partes de la región tolteca para ganar el amor de la princesa, pero ella no se enamoraba de ninguno. El rey, que quería para su hija un esposo rico de buena posición en la sociedad tolteca, ya estaba impaciente. A veces le preguntaba a la princesa que esperaba.

-so se -contestaba la muchacha -. Solo se que mi esposo va a ser alguien que voy a amar desde el principio y para siempre.

Un día llego a la ciudad un príncipe chichimeca. Los chichimecas no tenían una civilización tan esplendida como la de los toltecas. Vivian de la caza y la pesca en las montanas. Los toltecas pensaban que los chichimecas Vivian como perros, y se reían de ellos.

El príncipe chichimeca venia para visitar el gran mercado de Teotihuacán, donde vendían hermosísimos objetos de oro, ropa de brillantes colores, animales exóticos y muchas otras cosas.

Ese misino día, la princesa tolteca estaba en alfombras para su palacio. Paso que, de repente, entre toda la gente y el ruido del mercado, el príncipe y la princesa se fijaron uno en el otro. Sin una palabra, desde el principio y para siempre, el príncipe y la princesa se enamoraron.

Los dos sabían muy bien que su amor era prohibido. Cada uno debía casarse con alguien de su pueblo y su clase: la princesa tolteca con un príncipe tolteca y el príncipe chichimeca con una princesa chichimeca.

Las señoras que acompañaban a la princesa se dieron cuenta de lo que pasaba, y rápidamente llevaron a la princesa a su palacio. El príncipe también regreso al suyo en las montanas. Trato de olvidar a la bella princesa, pero no pudo.

Después de un tiempo, el príncipe decidió volver a Teotihuacán, a pedir la mano de la princesa. Un día se vistió de su ropa mas fina y fue al palacio del rey tolteca. Allí mando a sus mensajeros a hablar con el rey para pedirle a su hija como esposa.

Cuando oyó las palabras de los mensajeros del príncipe, el rey tembló de furia y grito: -! mi hija solo se va a casar con un príncipe tolteca, nunca con un chichimeca que vive en las montanas como un animal!

Cuando la princesa oyó todo astro, se sintió muy triste. Le tenía mucho respecto a su papa, pero el rey estaba furioso: -?como pudiste hacerme eso? - le pregunto a su hija -! vete comida ni casa a ningún tolteca, que no te va a dar nada!! lo prohíbo!

Lo mismo le paso al príncipe cuando volvió a su palacio. Su padre le grito: - ? Te cassata con ulna Toltec?! Ya no eres mi hijo, ni eres chichimeca! ! no esperes nunca la ayuda de ningún chichimeca!

Con el corazón muy triste, el príncipe y la princesa se reunieron y empezaron a buscar donde vivir en las montan. Nadie los quería ayudar o darles un lugar para descansar y vientos fríos.

Comían solo hierbas y frutas , porque el príncipe no tenia nada con que cazar o pescar. Poco a poco, los esposos se estaban muriendo .

Una noche muy fría y larga, el príncipe se dio cuenta de que pronto se iban a morir los dos. Estaban en un valle pequeño desde donde podían ver la ciudad de Teotihuacán. La princesa pensaba en su casa y el príncipe la miraba con tristeza y amor, sabiendo lo que pensaba.

-mi bella princesa - le dijo - ya nos vamos a morir. Nos vamos a separar ahora en este mundo para estar siempre juntos en el otro. Duerme por última vez en mis brazos esta noche. En la mañana, tu te vas a ir a la montana mas baja que mira sobre tu ciudad y también mira sobre fue ciudad. Allí vamos a descansar, allí te voy a cuidar para siempre y nuestros espíritus van a ser un solo espíritu. Al día siguiente los dos se separaron, y cada uno empezó a subir su montana. La princesa subió la montana iztaccihuatl y el príncipe subió la montana popocatepetl.

Cuando la princesa llego a la cumbre de su montana, se durmió y la nieve la cubrió. El príncipe se puso de rodillas, mirando hacia la princesa y la nieve también lo cubrió. De esta manera podemos ver hoy al príncipe y la princesa, en la cumbre del iztaccihuatl y el popocatepetl. A veces hay grandes ruidos desde muy dentro del popocatepetl. Es el príncipe llorando por su princesa.

A long time ago, in the great city of Teotihuacan, there was a Toltec king who had a beautiful daughter. The hair of the process was so black and soft as a summer night, their eyes were so big and so beautiful smile was claiming that the sun looked at the ride every morning to be the first to see it

Many princes rich and famous came from all parts of the region Toltec to win the love of the princess, but she was not enamoraba of none. The king, who wanted her daughter to a rich husband in good position in society Toltec, and was impatient. Sometimes she asked the princess had expected.

- So is -contestaba girl -. Only my husband is going to be someone that I will love from the beginning and forever.

One day I come to the city chichimeca a prince. The Chichimecas did not have a civilization as splendid as that of the Toltecs. Vivian of hunting and fishing in the mountains. The Toltec thought that the Chichimecas Vivian like dogs, and laughed with them.

The prince chichimeca permission to visit the large market of Teotihuacan, where beautiful objects sold gold, clothes bright colors, exotic animals and many other things.

That misino day, the princess was in Toltec carpet for his palace. Step, suddenly, among all people and the noise of the market, the prince and princess were fixed each other. Without a word, from the beginning and forever, the prince and the princess fell in love.

Both knew full well that their love was forbidden. Each should marry someone of his people and his class: Princess Toltec Toltec with a prince and a princess prince chichimeca chichimeca.

The ladies who accompanied the princess realized what was happening, and quickly led the princess to his palace. The prince also return to theirs in the mountains. I try to forget the beautiful princess, but could not.

After a while, the prince decided to Teotihuacan, to ask the hand of the princess. One day he wore his clothes and was fine but the palace of King Toltec. They command their messengers to talk to the king to ask his daughter as a wife.

When he heard the words of the messenger of the prince, the king trembled with rage and scream:-! My only daughter is going to marry a prince Toltec, never with a chichimeca living in the mountains as an animal!

When the princess heard all star, it was very sad. He had a lot of respect to their pope, but the king was furious:-? Could you make me like this? - I ask her daughter-! Go home to no food or Toltec, which is not going to give you anything! ! What prohíbo!

The same happened when the prince returned to his palace. His father would scream:-? You cassata with ulna Toltec? ! No longer are my son, you are neither chichimeca! ! Never do not expect any help from chichimeca!

With heart very sad, the prince and princess met and started looking to live in the ride. Nobody wanted to help or give them a place to rest and cold winds.

They ate only herbs and fruits, because the prince did not have anything with which to hunt or fish. Gradually, the spouses were dying.

A very cold night and eventually the prince realized that soon the two were to die. They were in a small valley from where they could see the city of Teotihuacan. The princess thought her house and the prince watched with sadness and love, knowing what I was thinking.

- My beautiful princess-told-and we will die. We will now separate in this world to be always together on the other. Sleep for the last time in my arms tonight. In the morning, you are going to go to the lower montane looking over your town and city was also looking on. There are going to rest, I will look after you there forever and our spirits will be one spirit. The next day the two were separated, and each began to climb his mountain. The princess climbed the mountain iztaccihuatl and the prince ascended the mountain popocatepetl.

When the princess came at the height of his mountain, he fell asleep and the snow covered. The prince was on his knees, facing the princess and snow also covered. Thus we can see today the prince and princess, at the summit of iztaccihuatl and popocatepetl. Sometimes there are very big noises from within the popocatepetl. The prince is crying for his princess

Caesar Tin-U

Mr. Acevedo

AP Biology Per. 7

9 November 2007

1999 AP Biology Prompts

1. The rate of photosynthesis may vary with changes that occur in environmental temperature, wavelength of light and light intensity. Using a photosynthetic organism of your choice, choose only ONE of the three variables (temperature, wavelength of light, or light intensity) and for this variable.

• Design a scientific experiment to determine the effect of the variable on the rate of photosynthesis for the organism;

• Explain how you would measure the rate of photosynthesis in your experiment;

• Describe the results you would expect. Explain why you would expect these results.

Put chloroplasts into a little tube, use spectrometer to determine chloroplasts health.

For this experiment, plant cells will be used. The purpose of this experiment is to determine the rate of photosynthesis between environmental temperatures, wavelength of light and light intensity while keeping the type of plant cells constant. Firstly, the primary goal will be to extract photosynthetic cells from plant samples, and designate them as plant cell sample a, b, c, for simplicity’s sake. Plant sample a will be used to test the variable of photosynthetic ability during the varying environmental temperature, plant sample b will be used to test the differences in the differences of wavelengths of light (otherwise known as colours), test sample c will be used for varying light intensity, and plant sample d will be used as a control, grown under normal conditions that the plant is usually found in.

As test sample a is varied under the conditions of increasing, and decreasing temperatures, the most likely result is the decreased rate of photosynthesis while the temperature is below 60~30 degrees Fahrenheit and stops at the freezing temperature of water (due to the fact that plant cells are 70% water, and most of their reactions take place within a hydro-solution.) Both plant subjects will be placed under normal conditions that they usually grown under; changing only the variable of temperature at different intervals. To do this, multiple test subjects under sub-category “a” will need to be created, each for each temperature interval of 10 degree Fahrenheit.

Data collection will include submerging a leaf of each sub-subject “a” plant in iodine and observing the amount of white patches on the leaf. Iodine binds to starch, a byproduct of photosynthesis, and will thus make the leaf appear stained to varying degrees. Using a light spectrometer, we can determine the gradient of the shade of stain, and then plot it on a graph. Expected results will be dark at normal temperatures, and then lighter at the colder areas. Beyond the point of incineration of the leaf data is irreverent due to the fact that the leaf will be incinerated, so no data can be retrieved (effectively).

The same process will be repeated for the variables of the wavelength of light (colour) and the light intensity, with different increments of 50nm for the wavelength of light (not to exceed 500nm nor 700nm for those are different forms of electromagnetic radiation that are irreverent to this experiment), and the increments of 5 watts for light intensity. Respectively, sub-subjects will be created for the subjects of “b” and “c”. Controls for each group will be designated as accordingly.

Data collection of the subjects will include the submergence of each leaf of each sub-subject plant in iodine and observing the differences of white gradient on each leaf in comparison to the control group which was grown under “normal” circumstances. Iodine binds to starch, a byproduct of photosynthesis, and will thus allow the scientist to determine the rate of photosynthesis though means of a spectrometer to measure how much “white gradient” appears on the leaf. Expected results will be of dark staining at normal “control” circumstances, gradually lightening as the sub-subjects reach the two ends of the extremes of the control group.

2. Communications occurs among the cells in a multicellular organism. Choose THREE of the following examples of cell-to-cell communication, and for each example, describe the communication that occurs and the types of responses that result from this communication.

   • Communication between two plant cells

   • Communication between two immune-system cells

   • Communication either between a neuron and another neuron, or between a neuron and a muscle cell

   • Communication between a specific endocrine-gland cell and its target.

One example of communication between cells is the lung tissue. The epithelial cells of the human lung express a growth stimulant, called heregulin, on their apical surface and its receptors on the basolateral surface. These receptors also respond to epidermal growth factor (EGF), and mutant versions have been found in cancer. When the sheet of the cells becomes broken, heregulin can reach its receptors. The result is an autocrine stimulation of mitosis leading to healing of the wound. Through this example, the lung tissue shows both sensory, and hormonal communications between other cells. Once the lung cells have “noticed” that they are next to a neighboring cell, mitosis stops. The same can be seen with skin cells of any epithelial tissue.

Neuro-muscular communications originate in the brain, flows throughout the intercrossing nervous system, and will finally reach its destination, thus triggering a impulse. An example of such is the heart. After the autonomous nervous system generates a unconscious impulse to the heart, the action potential in heart (cardiac) muscle flows from cell to cell through the heart providing the rhythmic contraction of the heartbeat. At some synapses in the brain, gap junctions permit the arrival of an action potential at the synaptic terminals to be transmitted across to the postsynaptic cell without the delay needed for release of a neurotransmitter. As the time of birth approaches, gap junctions between the smooth muscle cells of the uterus enable coordinated, powerful contractions to begin.

Although each plant cell is encased in a boxlike cell wall, it turns out that communication between cells is just as easy, if not easier, than between animal cells. Fine strands of cytoplasm, called plasmodesmata, extend through pores in the cell wall connecting the cytoplasm of each cell with that of its neighbors.

Plasmodesmata provide an easy route for the movement of ions, small molecules like sugars and amino acids, and even macromolecules like RNA and proteins, between cells. The larger molecules pass through with the aid of actin filaments. Interestingly enough, plasmodesmata are sheathed by a plasma membrane that is simply an extension of the plasma membrane of the adjoining cells. This raises the intriguing question of whether a plant tissue is really made up of separate cells or is, instead, a syncytium: a single, multinucleated cell distributed throughout hundreds of tiny compartments.

3. A controlled experiment was conducted to analyze the effects of darkness and boiling on the photosynthetic rate of incubated chloroplast suspensions. The dye reduction technique was used. Each chloroplast suspension was mixed with DPIP, an electron acceptor that change from blue to clear when it is reduced. Each sample was placed individually in a spectrophotometer and the percent transmittance was recorded. The three samples used were prepared as follows.

   • Sample 1 – chloroplast suspension + DPIP

   • Sample 2 – chloroplast suspension surrounded by foil wrap to provide a dark environment + DPIP

   • Sample 3 – chloroplast suspension that has been boiled + DPIP

1. On the axes provided, construct and label a graph showing the results for the three samples.

2. Identify and explain the control or controls for this experiment.

-Controls: Sample 1. The components of this suspension were kept identical to those of the other tests being commenced. It contained no additives other than DPIP and no other variables were introduced to the suspension to keep it “neutral” as a starting point for their observations.

3. The differences in the curves of the graphed data indicate that there were differences in the number of electrons produced in the three samples during the experiment. Discuss how electrons are generated in photosynthesis and why the three samples gave different transmittance results.

-Electrons are generated in photosynthesis though the energizing and transfer of electrons between substances that take place during the light-dependent reactions. Such dependency is photosystem II, where the extractions of electrons are present due to the fact that the energy from the sun is needed to power the later reactions happening later in photosynthesis. The results were less in sample 2 (the chloroplast suspension surrounded by foil wrap to provide a dark environment) because of the fact that without sunlight, no outside electrons can be introduced into the photosystem, thus reduction the about on electrons produced (and thus making DPIP less dominant of a colour.)